A blog of Chinese art, culture and design

Collection of 18th and 19th century hardwood brush pots and calligraphy brushes

The Evolving Role of the Scholar Reflected in his Instruments

Whether poet, painter, calligrapher or writer, Chinese artists are often historically referred to as scholars and enjoyed varied status in Chinese society depending on the culture and politics of the time.  The craftsmanship of scholarly instruments was a reflection of the ever-changing position of the scholar in Chinese society.  Prior to the Yuan dynasty (1279), to be a scholar meant passing a series of exams in order to demonstrate mastery of calligraphy, poetry and ancients texts. It was a government position and many works were commissioned by the court.  The Mongol occupation of the Yuan dynasty forced scholars to choose between working for a foreign ruler or reclusion.  Many historians argue that the Yuan period forever altered the perception of the scholar.   Their forced reclusion elevated their position beyond title or tests. They were a singular creative force, preserving ancient traditions while expressing the incredible solitude of this time. The Ming dynasty (1368-1644) brought wealth and again another evolution of the scholarly life.  Under some Ming emperors, scholars enjoyed support by the imperial court.  However, some emperors suspended acquisitions for the imperial collection, spurring private collections and an active art market.

The tools of the scholar reflect these many changes; from simple travel-friendly tools of the hermetic scholar to jade-embellished opulent instruments of the Ming dynasty.  As the decorative elements of the tools changed, the tools themselves remained constant: an ink slab, a large wooden pot to hold brushes, scholars’ rocks, and libation cups to name a few.   Although these tools have been in use for hundreds of years, they still inspire and aid the creative process for artists today.

Calligraphy Brushes and Brush Pots

Calligraphy brushes take many forms, but the right brush with the right artist can produce brushstrokes with dimensionality and deep emotion.  The better quality the brush, the better the calligrapher is able to maneuver. The brush moves from left to right, up to down, it bends and spreads wide as more downward pressure is applied. Brushes have two or more layers; an inner core of shorter hairs and an outer layer of longer hairs that make the tip of the brush.  Brush pots can be made from a variety of woods, such as burl wood, bamboo, boxwood, and even prized hardwoods. They can be made to follow their natural form, highlighting the natural beauty of the wood, or they can be intricately carved.

A 19th century burlwood brush pot, reflecting the appreciation for the spontaneity of nature during the Ming and Qing Dynasties

Ink Stone

Ink was purchased and transported in the form of a solid ink stick.  The ink stone provided a flat surface to grind the ink stick into liquid.  Early ink stones were made out of pottery, but by the 7^th century natural stones were introduced.  Like brushes and brush pots, ink stones come in a variety of shapes and sizes–highlighting that every element of the creative process was both functional and a source of inspiration.

Two ink stones; one is peach-shaped (a symbol of longevity) and the other is carved with a Phoenix in a bamboo forest

An 18th century green agate ink stone with peach-shaped water well.

Scholar Rocks

Scholar rocks started as inspirational tools.  Similar to their larger counterparts, the garden scholar’s rock, these strangely shaped stones with jagged interlocking crags and ravines conjure images of remote mountain grottos of ancient sages and monumental cliffs of the immortals.  The scholar rock could be placed on a desk or travel with the artist to inspire the painting of mountain scenes. Although scholars originally collected these rocks to inspire the creation of mountain motifs, they eventually were collected for their natural beauty. Beyond their unique form, some rocks have patterns of fantastic deep greens, icy grays and desert reds, such as the Dahua Red River Stones. Some popular stones, such as the Peony and Chrysanthemum stones have natural incredible bursts of white, resembling flowers.  In each case, these rocks transport the viewer to another place wherever that may be.

Collection of Scholars' Rocks, or meditation stones, in a garden for creative inspiration

This 19th century red Taihu (Lake Tai) Scholars' Rock on a hand-carved rosewood stand would have been placed in a Scholars' studio to inspire creativity.

Taihu stones are cherished by the Chinese because of their resemblance to the unique mountains of Guilin. This collection has been "planted" in a private garden in Chicago.

A late 18th century Scholars' Rock named, "Ox on a Mountain". Scholars' Rocks were often named after the creatures they mimic.

Libation Cups

Libation cups could be considered more of an interesting companion to the scholar than a tool. These drinking vessels traveled with the artist to the many social gatherings held by fellow scholars.   Paintings and calligraphic works were frequently created at such social gatherings.  Artists observed each other’s work, sometimes recording the night’s events on scrolls.  Drinking was another component of such parties. Even today it can be difficult for art historians to reconcile a subtle change of the hand in a painting or inscription, often pointing to an intoxicated artist as a possible alternative to forgery when faced with inconsistencies.  Like brush pots, libation cups are made in a variety of sizes and woods.  Some maintain the natural contours of the wood, others enjoy skillful carvings. They are extraordinary objects, situated as both drinking vessels and witnesses to the creative process.

18th and 19th century lacquered and burled libation cups with brass hardware

An 18th century scholar's libation cup carved with Shou Hsing, the god of longevity, in a garden with attendants mounted on custom stand.

Right now, all over the world and especially Asia, people are celebrating the arrival of the year of the Tiger. In addition to having enjoyed a delicious Chinese banquet, we hung a folk portrait titled “Two Tigers” front and center in our Bucktown gallery to mark the start of the new year. The painting of two tigers in conflict is an exquisite example of Eastern painting traditions from the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Minimal use of color and shading, cropped composition, and ‘bird’s-eye’ view are all elements that were uniquely Asian and not utilized in Western painting at that time.

“Two Tigers” was created in Korea during the late 18th c. when Europe was primarily producing historical paintings, which were highly representational, containing one focal point. That primary figure was engaged with the viewer, as if only created to be observed, as opposed to having been captured in a moment, almost accidentally. The Western perspective was distanced from the focal figure and depth was created by shading. The primary object was situated in a fully developed scene that gave the image a context, narrative, and visual interest. For example, if the figure was a reclining woman, she would be in a room with furniture, drapery, and perhaps attendants.

Nearly everything is different about the Korean folk painting “Two Tigers”. First, the tigers are two-dimensional, with only minor attempts to achieve an image of what is actually seen in nature. The curved lines on the tigers’ backs outline the muscles and movement of the animals, which are also repeated in the gnarled branch in the background. However, the blades of grass, the fanned leaves, and even the tigers themselves produce a flat image due to the lack of shading and color variation. In Eastern techniques of the time, depth was created by layering rather than shading. The tigers are in front of the trees so we know they are closer to us. The tiger on the left has one leg positioned in front of the boar, informing us of his dominant position, protecting his kill. The Eastern tradition of layering instead of shading is very purposeful and not utilized due to lack of skill. In Asia, shading was believed to be a means of hiding mistakes. In the Asian tradition, painters left mistakes along with their triumphs on the canvas. The tigers are executed within a cropped frame, barely contained within the borders of the frame, without much story around them. We look down on the scene from above, another reoccurring perspective in Eastern painting of the time.

“Two Tigers” is a great example of late 18th and early 19th century Eastern folk paintings. This type of painting would rarely have been created in Asia during the late 19th century when this aesthetic lost favor amongst many painters who ‘modernized’ and adopted Western techniques.

“Two Tigers”

Korea
Late 18th century
Pigment in Plaster on Board
43″ w x 33″ high
$5880

The language of symbols pervades Chinese writing, painting, and thought. There are two levels of communication in China: the practical function of speech and writing, and the symbolic meaning that hides just beneath the surface. Chinese symbolism adds depth to seemingly ordinary objects.

Wordplay and Symbolism
Symbolism is an essential part of Chinese culture, contained within fundamental methods of communication, such as speech patterns. Chinese languages are tonal, resulting in a fondness for puns and wordplay. In Mandarin Chinese, four distinct variations in tone are used to distinguish words from one another. For instance, “fu” can represent either good fortune or a winged bat, depending on the intonation used. For this reason, bats and their depiction are considered good luck.

Pictographic Symbolism
The written word in Chinese is also symbolic. Objects and ideas are symbolized by graphic characters rather than phonetic letters. Pictographic symbolism extends to Chinese art as well. A painting of bamboo and a plum tree, for instance, represents a man and his wife. Landscapes often contain mountains (symbols of longevity) and water (representing the sea of happiness). The union of male stone and female sea also refers to the harmony of yin and yang. Objects in Chinese paintings are almost always more than meets the eye.

Animals
Animals appear in abundance throughout Chinese culture, in drawings, on clothing, in statues, and in furniture carvings. They are harbingers of good luck, wealth, and happiness. Many Western animal associations are reversed in Chinese mythology. Bats-feared in the West-are symbolic of good fortune in China, while butterflies-representative of new life in Western folklore-have the same phonetic root as the word for a seventy-year-old man and are, therefore, associated with the wish to live to an old age. Animals can have male or female associations. Bears and dragons are male symbols of strength and vigor, while snakes are associated with seductive female beauty.

Colors
Often colors are symbolic and, like many Chinese symbols, take on different meanings in different contexts. Blue flowers, for instance, are unlucky when worn in the hair, yet blue clouds represent scholarly pursuit. Red and green are the colors of life. Redwhile green is the color of family and fertility. White symbolizes old age, wisdom, and purity. Its opposite, black, is often associated with honor and death. Yellow, symbolic of earth elements, is a lucky color representing progress and fame. Purple is an imperial color, symbolic of the Emperor and the heavens.

Five Elements
In Chinese philosophy, the five elements represent states of being that balance one another. Each element is associated with a direction and a color: water is northern and black, fire is southern and red, wood is eastern and blue, metal is western and white, and earth is the yellow center. Fire ascends, while water descends. Earth encases seeds, while wood grows towards the heavens. Fire burns wood and bends metal, while water overcomes fire and wears away earth. Together, the five elements create harmony in the natural world.

Flowers and Plants
Flowers are associated with beautiful women and seasonal changes, and each variation has its own hidden power. Spring flowers include magnolias and peonies, both symbols of wealth. The lotus is the flower of summer’s purity; the chrysanthemum represents the longevity of autumn. Bamboo is a winter plant, symbolic of long life and peace. Plants are central to the art of Chinese garden design. Symbolic of vitality and longevity, evergreen plants are the stalwarts of the garden, while spring and summer blooms represent renewal.

Household Objects
The items that make up daily life acquire deep meaning as symbols of the home and family. Vases, for instance, carry special significance. The word for vase is pronounced, “ping,” a homonym with the Chinese concept of peace. Objects such as writing brushes and inkstones are associated with scholars, while horn cups (symbolic of health and happiness) and branching coral (representative of wealth and status) are among the eight precious objects of the Buddha. Bowls, shaped like the Buddha’s round stomach, are also associated with enlightenment.

Numbers
Chinese mysticism is grounded in numerical systems: the twelve months of the year, the five elements, and the eight emblems of Buddhism, for example. Numerical systems are subject to change-numerology varies from person to person. Odd numbers are seen as masculine, while even numbers are considered feminine. The most auspicious numbers are generally one (symbolic of the undivided whole), two (representing balanced pairs), three (associated with the religious trinities of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism), eight (phonetically connected with the word for prosperity), and twelve (symbolic of the lunar calendar). Four is usually considered unlucky, as it a homonym with the word for death, although four can also symbolize the four seasons, the four journeys of Siddhartha, or the four cardinal virtues of Confucianism.

Feng Shui practitioners rely on directional energy to plan a space, and the Luopan is their compass. Authentic Chinese luopans are beautifully crafted devices, tuned to produce accurate readings within complex scenarios. Dating back 2,000 years to the birth of Taoist Feng Shui, the luopan contains rings of information, each concentric circle relating to different heavenly and earthly energies. At the center of the luopan is a direction finder-the “Heaven’s Pool”-fitted with a magnetized needle that points south.

Luopans come in a variety of sizes, and scale generally increases with complexity. The traditional luopan is composed of two interconnected, rotating dials: a heaven plate (usually made of metal) and an earth plate (often composed of wood). The luopan allegorically embodies the union of heaven and earth; its name translates into “a plate (pan) that holds everything (luo).”

Unlike a normal compass, the luopan is divided into 24 directional lines that radiate outward from its center. These represent the “24 mountains,” a series of directions that correspond to yin or yang elements. A Feng Shui expert uses these 24 directions to determine the facing and siting of a building, ultimately mapping that building’s “birth chart.”

Each degree of the compass gives a reading that allows the Feng Shui practitioner to pinpoint what is right or wrong with a certain area. The practitioner reads the geomantic calculations-contained within the rings of the luopan-and uses this information to derive a solution to the problem. Comparing the luopan’s calculations with other factors, such as the homeowner’s birth chart, the Feng Shui expert recommends ways to promote a room’s inherent good qualities and minimize the harmful features of a space.

Luopans of high quality are rare objects. Contemporary versions often fuse the heaven and earth plates, undermining the luopan’s ability to accurately read a space. Well-crafted luopans, with rotating parts made from traditional materials, are highly valued among Feng Shui experts and lovers of Chinese objects.